The Advantages Of Primary Health Care

The Advantages Of Primary Health Care Primary health care is a vital function of an society acting as backbone. India was one of the first countries to recognize the advantages of Primary Health Care (PHC). PHC was conceptualized in 1946 when Sir Joseph Bhore committee made recommendations that formed the foundation stone for health service in India. Recommendations:- Integration of preventive and curative services at all administrative levels. Short term Primary Health Centers for every 40,000 population. Long Term- Primary Health Centers per 10,000-20,000 population to have 75 beds. Formation of Village health committee Provision of Social Doctor Three months training in preventive and social medicine to prepare social physicians. First Five Year plan (1951-1955) Community Development Program launched, 1952 keeping in eye 80% population lived in rural areas. Each Community Development Block (CDB) formation approximately 100 villages with a total population of one lakh. For one CDB, one Primary Health Centre was created. Second Five Year plan (1956-61) Health Survey and Planning Committee, The Mudaliar Committee, had to review the progress made in the health sector after submission of Bhore committee report. The major recommendation:- To limit the population served by primary health centres to 40,000 Improvement in the quality of health care provided by these centers. Provision of one basic health worker per 10,000 populations was recommended. The Jungalwalla Committee 1967 Highlighted importance of integration of health services. Integrated health services were defined as a service with a unified approach for all problems instead of a segmented approach for all different problems. The committee recommended integration from the highest to lowest level in the services, organization and personnel. The Kartar Singh Committee on Multipurpose workers 1973 Laid down the norms about health workers ensuring proper coverage one primary health centre to be established for every 50,000 population Each primary health centre to be divided into 16 sub-centres each for a population of 3,000 to 3,500. Each sub-centre to be staffed by a team of one male and one female health worker. The work of 3-4 health workers to be supervised by one health assistant. Major Goals to be acheived by National health Policy 2002 Eradicate Polio and Yaws Eliminate Leprosy Eliminate Kala Azar Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis Achieve zero level growth of HIV/AIDS Reduce mortality by 50% on account of TB, Malaria, other vector and water borne diseases Reduce prevalence of blindness to 0.5% Reduce IMR 30/1000 and MMR 100/lakh Increase utilization of public health facilities from 75% Establish an integrated system of surveillance, national health accounts and health statistics Increase health expenditure by Govt. as a % of GDP from existing 0.9% to 2% Increase share of central grants to constitute at least 25% of total health spending Legal Framework Insurance act, 1938 came into effect from 1st july 1939 (Amended in 1950, 1999). Contains provision regarding licensing of agents and their remunerations, prohibition of rebates and protection of policy holders interest. IRDA Act 1999, IRDA responsible for the administration of the insurance act. Power to register insurance companies. Monitor and certify terms of business. Inspect documents of insurers Adjudicating disputes between insurers and intermediaries. Decide on dipute related to settlement of claim. Life Insurance Corporation Act, 1956 for LIC only which was later on ceased on amendment of Insurance act 1999. Consumer protection Act 1986 (COPA) ensures that consumers of policies can approach any of the listed organization in the act for redress in case he is not satisfied with the goods or services provided. Income Tax Act : The premium paid is deducted under Section 80 D of the ITA. MRTP Act 1969 (Monopoly and restrictive trade Practices act) Controls concentration of economic power in one hand Restricts monopoly in the market Employees State insurance act, 1948 Treatment rcvd benefits Benefits not received Eligibility Central Government health Scheme (CGHS) addresses consumer complaints. Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 addresses all complaints and demand for compensation. Indian Contract Act 1872 for Breach of contract Deficiency in services Damages Dispute of facts Negligence Drugs control act (1950) and Indian Medical council act (1956) Literature Review Health Policy Challenges of India: private health Insurance lessons from the International Experience by Ajay Mahal The research concentrates on Regular development of Health Services in India and persisting challenges which are growing at the same pace. The are of study concentrates on United states, united Kingdom, Canada, Brazil, Germany, Israel. The research focuses on the health care system in Canada and appreciates the control methods used for services. The research findings are highlighted as: Patient satisfaction and Quality of care How to reconcile the need for choice among providers with cost containment. Reconciliation of consumer choice with equity. The study concentrates on the cost factor in the consumers mind and how the governments of these countries are trying to achieve the balance. Too much specialties and more supply of doctors may increase the cost of care. While conducting the study it was not taken into account that Health services have a long term impact. The study considers the short term impact which is seen by the consumer and drives him to the product. Health Insurance in India Prognosis and prospectus by Randall P Ellis, Moneer Alam, Indrani Gupta. Corroborating evidence that the system is disproportionately private is the estimate that 80 per cent of all registered allopathic physicians are private [Uplekar and George 1994, p 10]. An even higher estimate for the private sector appears in a report of the Planning Commissions Working Group on Health Management and Financing which estimated that household expenditures on treatment may be as much as 8.4 per cent of GDP versus public spending of only 1.1 per cent of GDP (Planning commission report 1996) In recent years nominal user fees have been charged at government facilities in Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab and Karnataka. These fees remain low in comparison to both private fees and the unofficial payments which are still made at most public facilities in these states and in other parts of the country. Nonetheless, these efforts at cost recovery remain in important initiative for improving incentives, decentralizing some spending authority and augmenting resources at public health facilities. The life insurance companies in India have relied on actuarial methods and life tables for fixing premia. The employment of rigorous procedures for the fixation of premia was not possible owing to paucity of the epidemiological data cross-classified by region and major socioeconomic class. The GIC and its subsidiaries do not have the option of estimating probabilities associated with the vulnerability of individuals to various diseases. Hence, they have relied mainly on simplified procedures based on the information available to them from the policy documents and the claims register. Recently, however, the GIC introduced a differential system for setting premia for its Mediclaim policies which adjusts for health expenditure differences as between five age groups. Information has also been collected for differences in claims rates by age, sex, rural/urban, habitat, occupation, and income groups. The age dimension, however, remains the only criterion being used by the GIC for adjusting premia. Inter Regional Inequality Facility Health Insurance for the poor, India by Rajeev Ahuja, Senior Fellow Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations (ICRIER) The series of Policy Briefs summarizes the experiences of Government initiatives aimed at addressing inequality in Africa, Asia and Latin America. The study concentrates on some of the initiatives and suggests some key learning for success of health insurance for individuals and families on low- incomes. Provision of healthcare services of a reasonable quality; Possibility of resource mobilization from the targeted population in order to recover costs. Presence of intermediary agency to overcome the informational disadvantages and high transaction costs involved in providing insurance to low-income groups. A Healthier future for India by Rajat Gupta (The McKinsey Quarterly, Jan 2008) The report speaks about acting on three fronts: A series of policy reforms needed to provide subsidized health insurance for the country citizens. Innovation in products. Today most of them offer only limited services. Regulatory environment which recognizes health insurance as separate business and not part of the insurance industry. It is essential for the growth of the sector. Health Insurance in India by K. Sujatha Rao Secretary, National Commission on Macroeconomics and Health, GOI. The present system of financing and payment systems raise several important concerns on the suitability of the structure to meet current day problems and future challenges. The large size of out of pocket expenditures provides an opportunity to pool these resources and facilitate spreading risk from households to government and employers on a shared basis which will be a more equitable financial arrangement. The dimension of equity is of particular concern as the inelasticitys of demand for acute care, are resulting in over 33 lakh persons being pushed below poverty line, every year. In short the social benefits of instituting social insurance as a financial instrument to replace user fees, outweighs the possible risks of moral hazard and increased costs, typical outcomes of prepaid insurance. How to minimize these two market failures are of concern and need to be addressed by developing a well thought out strategy taking international evidence into account so we build on existing kn owledge and learn from others experiences. It is argued that it is not advisable for governments to intervene in health insurance markets in a piecemeal manner-insurance for pensioners by the Department of Personnel; for weavers by the Department of Textiles, for fishermen by the Department of Agriculture, for farmers by the Department of Cooperatives, poor women by the Department of Rural Development etc., as such attempts fragment risk pools. In other words, resorting to insurance as a financing instrument must be an act of a deliberate strategy that addresses the market failures in order to ensure that inequities do not widen and the poor are not marginalized two typical outcomes of private, fragmented insurance systems In conclusion it is reiterated that given the fiscal constraints for government to provide universal access to free health care, insurance can be an important means of mobilizing resources, providing risk protection and achieving improved health outcomes. The crit ical need is to experiment with the wide range of financing instruments available in different scenarios and have adequate flexibility in the design features, the structures and processes, institutional mechanisms and regulatory frameworks, so that a viable balance can be achieved for minimizing market distortions so that the outcomes do not make the cure worse than the disease (Enthoven 1983, 1993). Unregulated markets are inefficient and inequitable, requiring governments to intervene to ensure no segmentation in the system (Bloom, 2001). For this, the burden of building partnerships and managing change is on the government, which in turn needs to base its strategy on sound research. Community Health Insurance in India- An overview by N Devadasan, Kent Ranson, Wim Van Damme, Bart Criel The objectives range from providing low cost health care to protecting the households from high hospitalisation costs. BAIF, DHAN, Navsarjan Trust and RAHA explicitly state that the health in surance scheme was developed to prevent the individual member from bearing the financial burden of hospitalisation. Healthinsurance was also seen by some organisations as a method of encouraging participation by the community in their own healthcare. And finally, especially the more activist organizations (ACCORD, RAHA) used community health insurance as a measure to increase solidarity among its members one for all and all for one. Health Care in India Emerging market report, 2007 (PWC) A growing healthcare sector Healthcare is one of Indias largest sectors, in terms of revenue and employment, and the sector is expanding rapidly. During the 1990s, Indian healthcare grew at a compound annual rate of 16%. Today the total value of the sector is more than $34 billion. This translates to $34 per capita or roughly 6% of GDP. By 2012, Indias healthcare sector is projected to grow to nearly $40 billion. The private sector accounts for more than 80% of total healthcare spending in India. Unless there is a decline in the combined federal and state government deficit, which currently stands at roughly 9%, the opportunity for significantly higher public health spending will be limited. One driver of growth in the healthcare sector is Indias booming population, currently 1.1 billion and increasing at a 2% annual rate. By 2030, India is expected to surpass China as the worlds most populous nation. By 2050, the population is projected to reach 1.6 billion. Government Health Expenditure of India: A benchmark study by Economic Research foundation, 2006 Health expenditure in India is dominated by Private spending. The study covers Pattern of health expenditure in India. House holds- 68.8 % External funding 14.4% Central Government 7.2% Firms 5.1% Others 4.7% Source: National Health account for India, 2001-2002 Absolute levels of total government spending on health, family welfare and child development are absurdly low by international standards, not only in per capita terms but also as share of GDP. Government spending on health amounts to less than 1 per cent of GDP. This has meant that a disproportionately large and growing share of the burden of health care has been borne by households in India, such that they account for an increasing share of total expenditure (nearly three-quarters in the most recent year for which data are available). Unlike many other countries, this is completely in the form of Out-of-pocket expenses, which are inherently regressive. Also, the share of household consumption expenditure devoted to health care has also been increasing over time, especially in rural areas where it now accounts for nearly 7 per cent of the household budget on average. Origin and Evolution of Primary Health care in India The study is about history of Health insurance in India Post-Independence. The paper starts with the Bhore committee report and follows on with major findings and suggestions of all the reports. The report also places some light on National Rural Health mission and its strategies. FICCI Health Insurance Report 2010 The report covers areas:- Promoting Quality Healthcare through Health Insurance Suggested standard format for provider bills Suggested discharge summary contents TPA/Insurer contract and concept on standardization of TPA hospital contract The report covers US healthcare industry and lay guideline for development of Indian healthcare industry on same patterns. Rise of health insurance in India Whats driving your revolution, Health conference, International Finance Corporation, April 20th 2007. The report covers the areas of healthcare financing in the country. It differentiates the growth factors and gives a 35% growth figure for last 5 years from the report date. It gives the 75-25 ratio of private and public health services. Research Objective To find out various factors influencing buying behavior towards health insurance product. To measure the relative weight age. To find out mutual correlation between factors and purchase decision by the consumers. Major Hypothesis H0 = Word of mouth is not the most effective advertisement for sale of health insurance products. H = Word of mouth is the most effective advertisement for sale of health insurance products. Research Methodology Descriptive method is used as research design. The research included Survey method as data collection tool. Sample Design:- 1. Target population Delhi working population in IT sector. Lower middle class Rural people who are employed as daily wages labour 2. Sample Size: 70 3. Sample Selection Simple random sampling The target population has been intentionally selected with a view to get data from a mix population. It will help in identifying the behavior of people from different economic class. Data Collection Secondary data source: Government bodies (National Health care report, Rural Health Policies, Budgetary provisions, UID program, etc) Private research bodies (McKenzie report on health insurance in India, PWC report, FICCI health insurance group report) Research paper published and presented in international seminars, journals and conferences. Primary data collection was done through filling up of questionnaire. Analysis tools used: SPSS and Excel DATA ANALYSIS No of respondents 70 and their distribution on the basis of yearly earnings. From the readings we have following findings: No. of Respondents in salary range less than 1lakh is of those people who are labours, daily wages workers, hawkers etc. No. of Respondents in salary range less than 2lakhs is of those people who are freshers, some old people who are working as Guards. No. of Respondents in salary range less than 3lakhs is of those people who are in IT enabled services and small time freelancers. No. of Respondents in salary range less than 4lakhs is of those people who are in IT field, BPO. No. of Respondents in salary range less than 5lakhs is of those people who are in IT field and Government employees. No. of Respondents in salary range less than 9lakhs but more than 5lakhs is of those people who are in IT field, Government service, Self employed. Do you have an Insurance Policy? The question was asked for General insurance policy and not specific to Health insurance only. The finding suggested that out of 70 respondents 55(79%) have insurance policy, 15 (21%) do not have insurance policy. Market Share of the organizations providing coverage on the basis of Respondents. The result is based on insurance policy owned by the respondents. Out of 70 respondents LIC has a share of 45%. ICICI Prudential Lombard has a share of 13% Kotak life has share of 6% followed by Max New York Life HDFC at 4% each. TATA AIG has a share of 3% Birla Sun Life has 2 %. Bajaj Allianz has 1%. 21% of the respondents do not have an insurance policy. Reason for buying Insurance Policy. The result is based on insurance policy and not health insurance policy in specific. The respondents were asked for the reason for buying policy when the bought it first time. Out of 70 respondents Tax saving 43% Security 23% Investment 10% Other 3% Do not have an insurance policy as they do not feel the need for an insurance policy 21 %. Which type of Policy do you have? The question was asked with the purpose to find the share of health insurance policy out of total insurance policy. The data is based on survey of 70 respondents. Traditional policy owners have 49%. ULIP policy owners 19% Health Insurance Pension plan at 4% Others 3% 21% of the respondents did not have an insurance policy. How did you come to know about the policy? The Question was asked in order to find out if word of mouth (Office/Family/Referrals) has a major share in insurance policy sales. The data is based on survey of 70 respondents. 21% of the respondents were influenced by Advertisement (Newspaper, Magazines, Internet, and Hoardings). 40% of the respondents were influenced by the Insurance Advisor. Family, friends, referrals have 12%. 6 % of the respondents were influenced by Kiosk, Directly from insurance office, direct calling, and Website sales. 4% of the respondents have other reasons. 21% of the respondents do not have insurance so they did not participate in the question. Factors influencing the purchase decision of the policy. The question was asked for the first insurance policy owned. The data is based on survey of 70 respondents. 33% of the respondents opted insurance for Savings(Tax Benefit) 17% of the respondents were influenced by advisors. 13% of the respondents have faith in there family, friend, relatives, colleagues. 6% of the respondents were influenced by advertisements. 9% of the respondents have taken policy as an investment option for long time. 21% of the respondents do not have an insurance policy. Do you have health benefit policy? The question was asked because if people do not have health insurance policy then what other options they have if any. The findings had a clear difference from the previous question findings which suggested only three respondents had health insurance policy. Out of 70 respondents 63% of the respondents said they have other form of health coverage. 37 % of the respondents did not have health insurance coverage. Name of the Source providing medical facilities. The Question was asked to find, what these other sources are. Out of 70 respondents surveyed 37% of the respondents have medical coverage from there office. 7% of the respondents are availing medical care and facilities through NGOs working in the area. 4% of the respondents use the charitable hospital or medicine shops(trust owned) to get the medical facilities. 19% of the respondents have others which is Government health insurance schemes at state level and Central level. 33% of the respondents did not had health insurance. If you buy a Second policy what are the factors which will influence your purchase decision. The question was asked to only 55 respondents and the data represents the same. 31 % of the respondents said they will look for new policy. 25% of the respondents said they will look for better services from there insurance provider. 9% of the respondents said that they would like to fill the gap left by there current policy. 15% of the respondents will depend on the inputs from there friends, relatives, colleagues, etc. Others have 20% of the share with different views. Technical factors responsible for effecting purchase decision The Question was asked to find out factors related to policy which influence buyers decision. Out of 70 respondents 48% of the respondents will look for Benefits from the Policy cover. 30% of the respondents will look for returns as they think it as safe investment. 20% of the respondents will look for the premium as per their pocket size. 2% of the respondents have other reasons.

Role of Women During and After the Age of Revolutions Essay -- French

There have been many stereotypical views and misconceptions about the role of women during and after the age of revolutions. Although the role of women did change, it is important to understand their position before the revolutions in order to wager how their role changed and of course, to what extent. It would be unrealistic to assume that all women during this period fell into one category. There are many factors to consider and so it is vital to address how different types of women behaved in their varied working and living environments. In pre industrial Europe the life of a single woman can be regarded as extremely difficult from an economic perspective. Most single women, irrespective of age, belonged to a family, either as a servant or a daughter. In both respects they were regarded as dependent. In a time when female wages were extremely low, the only way for a woman to obtain a degree of economic stability was to marry. The type of work a single woman carried out differed quite greatly from that of a married woman. As with all women their working role began in a similar way, helping within the home, assisting their mothers. Obviously the jobs they carried out varied according to the productive nature of their particular household, for example in agricultural areas daughters would often help with dairying, poultry, or the making of food and cloth. The very first time women began to ban together for the same rights that men have was during the French Revolution. Everything was being questioned in France then, and for the first time, women were doing some of the questioning. Why couldn't women vote? Why couldn't women hold public office? Why were women expected to tend to the kids and the house all day?... ...e of the Enlightenment era, the role of women in society began changing drastically as the lights of the world were now open with this brand new enlightened era. Women began holding jobs, yet still did not receive the same privileges as men. By the time the Industrial Revolution came along in the 19th century many more jobs were opened to a woman in the work force. Reforms began in all areas throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries as women were gaining more and more rights and acceptance into everyday life. By the time the 20th century rolled around and throughout, no longer was it thought that women belonged in the home (although few still feel that way), yet many women began serving professional jobs as doctors, lawyers, and politicians. Now today some of the most successful people in the business world are women, as women have even began their own companies.

Documents of American History

There have been a number of amendments within the United States Constitution that have distinguished themselves as having an important and lasting quality, more so than other amendments. The first amendment with its protection of religious freedom, freedom of the press, assembly, speech and petition is seen as the most important. The 2nd amendment which states that a well organized militia is allowed to carry arms and which the Supreme Court has interpreted it to mean all law abiding citizens have the right to carry arms has been a source of debate for many years.There are two amendments within the Constitution that are terribly important, yet have been forgotten in the years since its passage. The 14th Amendment, which established citizenship for all persons born within the United States had enormous historical and political implications as it overturns the Dred Scott Supreme Court Decision of 1857, strengthens the 13th Amendment and helps pave the way for the 15th Amendment as well as the Civil Rights Act of 1875. The second important yet forgotten amendment within the Constitution is the 19th Amendment which gives woman the right to vote.This amendment as well has large historical and political implications as well since the current frontrunner in the quest for the Democratic nomination for President is Hillary Clinton: a woman. This modern turn of events would not have been made possible if not only for the 19th amendment but also the decades of protests and all the work on behalf of women’s suffrage that took place. The 14th Amendment states that no state can infringe upon the rights of any person, regardless of their race: â€Å"Section 1.All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State depri ve any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. † This is a key aspect of the text as it helps to strengthen the 13th amendment as well. With the passage of the 13th amendment on January 1, 1863, nothing really changed.The Southern States, who were in rebellion against the Union, felt that they were no longer bound to obey any laws that came out of Washington. The amendment would have to be recognized once the Union won the Civil War and brought the southern states back into the Union. To a lesser degree, the same could be said about the 14th amendment and its relation to its predecessor, the 13th amendment. After the war, there was no longer any slavery and four million African Americans were left at the doorstep of the Federal government while still residing in the Southern states.The great migration of African Americans to the Northern cities was still decades in the fu ture. So as a result, southern legislatures sought to put African Americans back in a type of quasi slavery though oppressive Jim Crow and black code laws. These laws were designed to return blacks to their pre war condition of submission to the white establishment. This was accomplished through restrictive measures that prevented African Americans from suing in court, testifying in court, being a member of a jury as well as being able to own a gun.African Americans were not allowed to gather on a street corner by themselves and racial discrimination regarding public places was understood to be included in these black codes as well. The 14th amendment was passed during Reconstruction. Abraham Lincoln had been assassinated and Vice President Johnson, a southerner from Tennessee had been made president. He was from the south but loathed the south’s actions of rebellion during the civil war. However, those feelings seem to pass as he vetoed nearly every civil rights bill that wa s passed by Congress during his years in office.It would be these actions by President Johnson that would give him the dubious honor of being the first President to be impeached. He avoided banishment by one vote in the senate but the success of his presidency was over. It is in this context that the 14th amendment was passed since in the end, the 14th amendment is a civil rights bill that would be challenged in the years after its passage. The 14th Amendment did not go as far as the Radical Republicans, as they were called, wanted it to go.The 15th amendment and the 1875 Civil Rights Act, built upon the power that the 13th and 14th amendments went in securing the rights of individuals under the Constitution, regardless of their race. The power of the 14th Amendment would be limited after the Supreme Court outlawed the 1875 Civil Rights Act which was built upon the power of the 14th amendment. The Supreme Court said that only the state was prohibited from infringing upon the Civil R ights of an individual and that private businesses could be allowed to implement such practices as segregation or refusal to rent or sell to an African American if they chose to do so.The power of the 14th Amendment would be further decreased with the 1890 Supreme Court Case Plessey vs. Ferguson. The Supreme Court held that the states could not impose segregation on public places as long as those facilities were â€Å"separate but equal. † There were many at the time of the passage of the 14th amendment and who felt that they were responsible for it passage, who regarded the 14th amendment as having broad powers concerning its ability to give African Americans equal protection and recognition under the law. In the immediate years after the passage of the amendment, this seemed to be more and more, less likely to occur.The original intent of the law and its power would not be seen until the 20th century with such decisions as Brown vs. Board or Education (1954) which stuck dow n forever, racial discrimination within public places. Another important aspect of the 14 amendment was the fact that since African Americans was now seen as citizens, their representation in Congress needed to be known. The section reads: Section 2. â€Å"Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed.But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens sh all bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.† Although not at the immediate time of its passage, this section allows for African Americans, now citizens, to be represented in Congress. This struck down the previous â€Å"three-fifths† clause which states that for political reasons, African Americans would be counted as only 3/5 of a vote and therefore, not seen by the government as a complete person. The 14th amendment, continuing on the theme of Civil Rights, struck down this offensive aspect of the Original Constitution in order to give African Americas, now citizens, the rights afforded to them as citizens of The United States of America.Full rights for African Americans would not be realized for many more decades but the 14th amendment did a great deal in increasing those rights that help each citizen to feel as though they are a part of the democratic process and are recognized in such a capacity. The struggle for womenâ€⠄¢s suffrage reached its peak during the late 1800s. But the famous 1848 meeting at Seneca Falls New York, directed by Elizabeth Caty Stanton and Lucretia Mott, two giants in the cause for women’s suffrage fought long and hard for the right to be able to vote.The first state to allow women to vote was Wyoming in 1870 and women were even allowed to sit as jurors but there was no federal amendment to protect a woman’s right to vote and the majority of the country did not recognize a woman’s right to vote. The cause for women’s suffrage would enjoy a resurgence during the abolitionist days and the move against slavery. The fight for equal rights for African Americans could not help but remind the female abolitionists that they did not even have some of the rights that the former slaves were bound to receive once their freedom would be won.This came to fruition with help from the 14th Amendment. This amendment not only gave citizenship to all individuals that were born in the United States, meaning four million former slaves would now be considered citizens but also gave voting rights to all males in the country. In May 1869, the National Woman Suffrage Association was founded by Elizabeth Caty Stanton and Susan B. Anthony. The organization set out to win a national amendment which would grant women the right to vote. In November 1869, the American Woman Suffrage Association was formed and fought for both state and federal woman suffrage amendments.This helped lay the groundwork for the national campaigns in Washington D. C. in 1912. In 1917, the Susan B. Anthony Federal Suffrage amendment was placed before the House. In 1919, both houses of Congress approved the amendment and it went to the state legislatures for ratification. The approval of thirty six states were needed before the suffrage amendment could become law and surprisingly, the states moved with surprising speed and in August 1920, the 19th Amendment became part of the Cons titution. The wording of the amendment reads as such:The right of citizens in the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. Both the 14th and 19th Amendments expand the rights of an important segment of the population. Such amendments have been forgotten because the rights that they protect are seen as never having a starting point for a large segment of the population that seems oblivious to anything that has happened before they were born.Recently, a popular comedy television show, had as one of its comedy pieces, set up a table outside of a busy walkway and sought out women to sign a petition: â€Å"To end Women’s Suffrage. † An alarming number of women as well as men signed the petition, possibly confusing suffrage for suffering. It is due to this amazing level of ignorance that the history, wording and influence of these above mentioned amendments be reintroduced into the nation’s consciousness.The 19th amendment gave women the right to vote but it also told women what they already knew: that they were an important aspect of the American democratic system and that their involvement was required. Women then became governors, senators, representatives, Supreme Court judges and in 2008, possibly the next President of the United States. The 19th Amendment helped make all of this come to fruition, along with the dedication and perseverance of a lot of women and men as well.The 14th amendment is also one of those amendments whose forgotten memory serves as an impediment to every American who assumes that they ways that things are today, is how they have always been. In this manner, history’s importance is all too often underestimated as ignorance breeds apathy for the works and sacrifice of others who came before. When Americans think of civil rights, they think of Martin Luther King Jr. Ro sa Parks and perhaps even Jesse Jackson. But the study of civil rights must first start in the 18th and 19th century if at all.â€Å"The 13th, 14th and 15th amendments which greatly increased the rights for all peoples, regardless of their race as well as the 19th amendment, all had their origins in the 19th century. † And as it is with most amendments, its origins are seen years and decades before its actual passage and many times, opens the door for further legislation in the future. The 14th and 19th amendments are two examples of this. Sadly, America’s heroes are based more upon pop culture and the every day actions of Britney Spears and Paris Hilton. More is known about their unimportant lives than the sacrifices of Elizabeth Caty Stanton and Susan B.Anthony despite the fact that their actions have a more encompassing and important affect on their lives than pop culture ever will, or at least should. Every amendment within the Constitution should be studied and re cognized for what it is and does. This is especially true for the 14th and 19th amendments. WORKS CITED Commanger, Henry Steele. Documents of American History. New York: Century Publishers, 1947 Perry, Michael. We the People. The 14th Amendment and the Supreme Court. New York: Oxford University Press. 1999. The Supreme Court. PBS Video: Thirteen Production. February 24, 2007

Dennis vs US essays

Dennis vs US essays This case focuses on the Smith Act, which was passed in the late 1940s. Under this act It shall be unlawful for any person to knowingly or willfully advocate, abet, advise, or teach the duty, necessity, desirability, or propriety of the overthrowing or destroying any government in the United States by force or violence... It also targets organizers of groups intending to commit such acts, as well as people who publish or in any other way support a movement with the end goal being the actions described above. In particular, this case focuses around the 11 members of the Communist Party of the United States who were planning the violent overthrow of the United States government, which is prohibited under the Smith Act. [Section 3] The communists are convicted and appeal, contending the Smith Act is unconstitutional. The Supreme Court, in the end sides with the government based on a series of reasoning. First they agree with the Court of Appeals, which finds that the Marcist-Leninist doctrine the Communist Party subscribes to, in itself, states that a violent overthrow of government in an existing democratic state is necessary because the ruling classes would not allow any other method of revolution. They also found Communists tolerate no dissension from the policy laid down by the guiding forces, but that approved program is slavishly followed by the members of the party. The Supreme Court also argues that many laws require an evil intent and that the petitioners are wrong in saying there is no evil intent. If that precise mental state [must] be an essential element of a crime, surel an intent to overthrow the Government of the United States by advocacy thereof is equally susceptible of proof. The Court continues by saying that change to the government and constitution is all right, as long as it is done legally, but that Congress has a right to protect the Government ...

10 Cool Facts About Lithium

10 Cool Facts About Lithium Here are some facts about lithium, which is element atomic number 3 on the periodic table. Lithium is the third element in the periodic table, with 3 protons and the element symbol Li.  It has an atomic mass of 6.941.  Natural lithium is a mixture of two stable isotopes (Lithium-6 and Lithium-7).  Lithium-7 accounts for over 92% of the natural abundance of the element.Lithium is an alkali metal.  It is silver-white in pure form and so soft it can be cut with a butter knife.  It has one of the lowest melting points and a high boiling point for a metal.Lithium metal burns white, though it imparts a crimson color to a flame.  This is the characteristic that led to its discovery as an element.  In the 1790s, it was known that the mineral petalite  (LiAISi4O10)  burned crimson in a fire. By 1817, the Swedish chemist  Johan August Arfvedson had determined the mineral contained an unknown element responsible for the colored flame. Arfvedson named the element, although he was unable to purify it as a pure metal. It wasnt until 1855 that British chemist  Augus tus Matthiessen and German chemist Robert Bunsen finally managed to purify lithium from lithium chloride. Lithium does not occur free in nature, though it is found in nearly all igneous rocks and in mineral springs.  It was one of three elements produced by the Big Bang, along with hydrogen and helium. However, the pure element is so reactive its only found naturally bonded to other elements to form compounds.  The natural abundance of the element in the Earths crust is about 0.0007%. One of the mysteries surrounding lithium is that the amount of lithium believed to have been produced by the Big Bang is about three times higher than what scientists see in the oldest stars.  In the Solar System, lithium is much less common than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements, probably because the atomic nucleus of lithium is practically unstable, with two stable isotopes possessing extremely low binding energies per nucleon.Pure lithium metal is extremely corrosive and requires special handling.  Because it reacts with air and water, the metal is stored under oil or enclosed in an inert atmo sphere. When lithium catches fire, the reaction with oxygen makes it difficult to extinguish the flames. Lithium is the lightest metal  and the least dense solid element, with a density about half that of water. In other words, if lithium did not react with water (which it does, somewhat vigorously), it would float.Among other uses, lithium is used in medicine, as a heat transfer agent, for making alloys, and for batteries. Although lithium compounds are known to stabilize mood, scientists still dont know the exact mechanism for the effect on the nervous system. What is known is that reduces activity of the receptor for the neurotransmitter dopamine and that it can cross the placenta to affect an unborn child.The transmutation of lithium to tritium was the first man-made nuclear fusion reaction.The name for lithium comes from Greek lithos which means stone. Lithium occurs in most igneous rocks, although it does not occur free in nature.Lithium metal is made by electrolysis of fused lithium chloride.

Risk management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Risk management - Assignment Example This explains the movement of chemicals in water. The Batch test is used to measure the coefficient distribution whereas soil is given in the solution sections. The procedure shows that it needs to be shaken for a time of 24-48 hours so that the amount absorbed in the soil can be identified. The different factors affecting the content include the following; salinity, organic content, chemical concentration on species and finally the pH with redox potential (Briand, 2010). According to the given scenario, saltwater encroachment of aquifers, because of anthropogenic contaminants changes the quality of water with its ecological water status as in the wells. Additionally, chemical pathogens with discoloration like calcium, sodium, iron and manganese are present. Water in most of the wells changes the color, the taste or even the odor because of chemical spills on the ground. Nevertheless, a high level of chloride can be witnessed on wells and contaminated water (Briand, 2010). It shows itself at the surface of the water wells with numerous numbers of the bacteria inside. The side effects to the infants drinking the contaminated water can experience diarrheal illness from the contaminated water, disorders in respiratory, frequent vomiting, parasitemia diseases, and coma. In addition, the children can acquire various infections from the contaminated soil grounds like cutaneous, hookworms and ascariasis. Infants should be highly protected from the above

Internet business and e commerce Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Internet business and e commerce - Essay Example Some sites appeared to be stark and uninviting while others were warm and welcoming. The online selling world really represents a radical departure from traditional selling methods and although a relatively new selling model for most businesses, it appears as though the online store is the way of the future (Pellet 1996). Companies wishing to harness the power of the internet must be able to target their audience effectively while presenting an attractive, accessible and simple to use online â€Å"storefront† through which products can be market, advertised and sold. Sites which used a variety of color are naturally the ones that people are most drawn to. Some sites appear uninviting and therefore unappealing and the image one presents on a homepage plays an important role in attracting customers. While determining customer preferences may be difficult to gage, some website features are sure to attract customers more so than others. Pop-ups, running advertisements and other distracting features will probably do more to dissuade as opposed to reassure a customer interested in making an online purchase. From a personal perspective, I was drawn to sites in which photos of smiling people present; this made me instantly more comfortable and ready to shop! Sites that appeared to be user friendly and easy to navigate (with readily available hyperlinks to move from one section of the site to another) rated highly on my list and sites that used proper English as well as catchy phrases to attract my attention where also positively received. Sites which I had an immediate aversion to where sites in which the photos appeared to be distorted, they were too â€Å"busy† or if pop-ups immediately distracted my vision. Pop-ups, distracting advertisements, poorly positioned and distorted photographs, as well as unenticing language rank highly as the most distracting aspects